Introduction

Crime is referred to as “the entire body of knowledge regarding the causes and prevention of crime, punishment and correction of criminals, and operation of correctional institutions and agencies.” Various theories have emerged over time to shed light on the motivations behind criminal acts.

1.      Classical and Neo-classical Theories

The classical theory of crime, rooted in the works of thinkers like Cesare Beccaria and Jeremy Bentham, is based on man’s rational will (choices based on the perceived benefits) and Hedonism (pain/pleasure principle). The British neo-classicist criminologists revised the classical theory in 1810 and 1819. Even then, Neo-classicists continued to accept the principles of free will of man and hedonism.

2.      Biological Theories (Positive School of criminology)

Biological theories of crime focus on the biological and genetic factors such as brain structure, genetics, neurochemical imbalance etc. that may predispose individuals to criminal behaviour. Lombroso, Ferri and Garofalo were three major positivists who laid stress on physiological incapacity of an individual or the biogenic or hereditary aspects of criminal behaviour.

3.      Psychogenic Theories

The science of endocrinology led to the emphasis of hormones and internal glands in the causation of crime. Schlapp linked crime with endocrinological deficiencies and hormonal imbalance. Sheldon related crime to physiological makeup; on the basis of their physique: endomorphic, ectomorphic and mesomorphic. Psychogenic theories consist of psychological theories (propounded by Goddard), Psychiatric theory (propounded by William and Healy) and Psychoanalytical theory (propounded by Adler and others).

4.      Strain Theory (Anomie theory- Structural aspect)

Strain theory, developed by Robert K. Merton, suggests that individuals are more likely to turn to crime when they experience a disconnect between societal goals and the means available to achieve those goals. Merton had identified five modes of adaptation available to those who react to the goals and means of society: Conformity, Innovation, Ritualism, Retreatism and Rebellion.

5.      Social Learning Theories

Social learning theories, influenced by the work of Albert Bandura, posit that criminal behaviour is learned through interactions with others. Individuals may observe, imitate, and internalize criminal conduct if they are exposed to deviant role models or environments. The concept of differential association emphasizes the influence of peers and social networks on criminal behaviour.

6.      Multiple-factor approach

It argued that the crime should be understood in terms of varied contributions made by variety of factors instead of single factor such as inherited physical traits, emotional disturbances etc. Scholars like William Healy, Cyril Burt, Sheldon and Glueck believed in multiple-factor approach. Although, criminologists like Cohen and many others criticized this approach.

Conclusion

Theories of crime offer valuable insights into the intricate dynamics of criminal behaviour. While these theories provide distinct perspectives, it is crucial to recognize that criminal conduct is often the result of a complex interplay of multiple factors, including individual, societal, and environmental elements. To effectively address and prevent crime, it is necessary to consider the multifaceted nature of criminal behaviour and employ a holistic approach that incorporates insights from various theories, along with evidence-based practices and policies.

 

Written By:

Anshika Srivastava

Volunteer-AFRS

 Introduction

In the vast field of forensic science, voice analysis plays a critical role in unraveling mysteries and solving crimes. By examining the unique patterns and characteristics of an individual’s voice, experts can extract valuable information that aids investigations, identifies criminals, and ensures justice prevails. This article delves into the fascinating world of voice analysis and forensic examination, shedding light on the methods and applications that make it an indispensable tool in modern criminal investigations.

Understanding Voice Analysis

Voice analysis, also known as speaker recognition or voice forensics, is the process of studying and evaluating a person’s vocal patterns to determine their identity or emotional state. Every individual possesses a distinct voice, influenced by factors such as vocal cords, pronunciation habits, and speech patterns. Advanced technologies and software analyze the acoustic properties of the voice, including pitch, frequency, tone, and accent, to create a voiceprint unique to each individual.

Applications of Voice Analysis in Forensic Examination

2.1. Speaker Identification

One of the primary applications of voice analysis in forensic examination is speaker identification. When law enforcement agencies or legal authorities have audio evidence with an unknown speaker, voice experts can compare it with known voice samples to identify potential suspects or witnesses. This analysis is crucial in cases where traditional methods might not provide conclusive evidence.

2.2. Audio Authenticity and Tampering

Voice forensics can also determine the authenticity of audio recordings and detect signs of tampering or manipulation. This is especially relevant in cases where criminals attempt to falsify or distort audio evidence to mislead investigations.

2.3. Emotional State Analysis

Experts can extract emotional cues from speech using voice analysis. This information can be essential in understanding the psychological state of individuals during a specific event, such as identifying stress or deception, which can be instrumental in evaluating witness testimony.

2.4. Language and Dialect Analysis

Voice analysis is invaluable in deciphering the origin, language, and dialect of an unknown speaker. This can aid in locating suspects or witnesses in cross-border investigations and cases involving linguistic challenges.

Voice Analysis Techniques

3.1. Spectrographic Analysis

Spectrographic analysis involves visualizing and studying the spectral components of audio signals. By examining the frequencies and amplitudes present in a voice recording, experts can identify unique patterns and create visual representations called spectrograms. These representations are instrumental in comparing voice samples and identifying characteristics that differentiate speakers.

3.2. Automated Speaker Recognition

With the advancements in artificial intelligence and machine learning, automated speaker recognition systems have become more prevalent. These systems use algorithms to analyze voice samples and create voiceprints, which are then compared against known voice databases for identification.

3.3. Voice Biometrics

Voice biometrics employ statistical algorithms to verify an individual’s identity based on their voice characteristics. This technology is widely used in security systems, call centers, and mobile devices for authentication purposes.

Limitations and Challenges

While voice analysis is a powerful tool in forensic examination, it is not without limitations and challenges. The accuracy of voice analysis heavily depends on the quality of the audio evidence, background noise, and the expertise of the analyst. Variability in vocal patterns due to physical or emotional changes can also impact results.

Additionally, the legal acceptance of voice analysis as evidence varies across jurisdictions. Courts may require stringent validation of the methodology and expertise of the analyst before considering voice analysis as admissible evidence.

Conclusion

2.1 speaker identification

Voice analysis and forensic examination have proven to be invaluable assets in modern criminal investigations. By leveraging the unique characteristics of an individual’s voice, experts can unravel mysteries, identify suspects, and ensure justice is served. As technology continues to advance, voice analysis will undoubtedly play an even more significant role in the pursuit of truth and the preservation of law and order. However, it is crucial to strike a balance between embracing new methodologies and acknowledging the limitations and challenges to ensure its accuracy and reliability in the legal system.

Ted Bundy was one of the most notorious serial killers and rapist who committed a series of heinous crimes during the 1970s in American. He is a prominent subject of study in the field of forensic psychology due to his complex psychological profile and the nature of his crimes. He continues to captivate the interest of forensic psychologists and criminologists till now due to the intricate interplay between his charming facade and his chilling acts of violence. This case study delves into the psychological factors that contributed to Bundy's heinous crimes, his manipulation of both victims and authorities and the lasting impact of his actions on the field of Forensic Psychology.

Background

Theodore Robert Bundy aka Ted Bundy was born on November 24, 1946 in Burlington, Vermont. He grew up in a middle-class family environment. His upbringing appeared unremarkable, marked by his intelligence and apparent normalcy. This camouflage of normalcy eventually became a cornerstone of Bundy's modus operandi. He was known for his charm, good looks and seemingly normal demeanour, which enabled him to gain the trust of his victims. Bundy was a law student at the University of Washington and worked at various jobs, including working at a crisis hotline, which allowed him to interact with vulnerable individuals.

Crimes

Bundy's crime spree began in the early 1970s with peeping and voyeurism, but his fantasies escalated into violent sexual assaults and eventually murder. The shift from fantasy to reality was marked by his inability to control his urges, driving him to commit increasingly violent acts. He lured young women by pretending to be injured and in need of assistance, using his charm to disarm them. He often used his arm in a fake cast or other props to gain sympathy. When the victims were convinced by his fake acts then, he used to overpower and assault them. His crimes escalated from sexual assaults to brutal murders. He decapitated at least 12 victims and preserved their head as memento in his apartment. Bundy was known for his careful planning and manipulation. He would often revisit crime scenes to perform necrophilic acts with the corpses. He was able to evade capture for years by constantly changing his appearance, moving to different states and using aliases.

Arrest and Trials

Bundy was finally apprehended in 1975 in Utah after being pulled over by the police for a progressively longer list of unsolved homicides in several states. He was also charged in Colorado for murder. Bundy escaped for 2 times from prison and committed more assaults in Florida, which include 3 murders. He was ultimately recaptured in 1978. In Florida homicidal cases, he received 3 death sentences within 2 trials. Evidence found in his car linked him to a series of abductions and murders. He was charged with multiple counts of murder and other crimes. He used to describe himself as "the most cold-hearted son of a bitch you'll ever meet".

During his trials, Bundy acted as his own attorney, which allowed him to cross-examine witnesses, including surviving victims. He used his legal knowledge and charisma to manipulate the proceedings and maintain control over the courtroom. Despite his efforts, Bundy was found guilty and sentenced to death.

Media Influence and Public Fascination

The media frenzy surrounding Bundy's trials and eventual execution amplified his notoriety. His good looks and charisma intrigued the public, sparking discussions about how such a seemingly ordinary person could commit such heinous acts. This case generated debates about the psychology of criminal behavior and the potential danger of underestimating outward appearances.

Ted Bundy’s Execution

Bundy was sentenced to death in several states and he spent years appealing his convictions. However, he eventually confessed to 30 murders committed across 7 states during year 1974 to 1978. Still now, the actual count of his victims remains unknown. He was executed at age of 42 years on an electric chair on January 24, 1989 at Florida State Prison, Raiford, Florida.

Ted Bundy's case remains a prominent and chilling example in the field of Forensic Psychology, illustrating the complexity of criminal behavior, the manipulation of appearances and the challenge of identifying dangerous individuals who hide behind a veneer of normalcy.

Psychological Profiling

Ted Bundy's case is of particular interest to forensic psychologists due to his ability to blend in with society and the stark contrast between his charming exterior and his violent behavior. Some key aspects of his psychological profile are mentioned below.

1.      Narcissism: Bundy exhibited extreme narcissism and had an inflated sense of self-importance. He believed he was smarter and more capable than others, which fueled his manipulative behavior. His manipulative behavior also led to his grandiose self-perception. He believed himself to be superior and entitled, seeing others as mere tools to fulfil his desires. This narcissistic trait intertwined with antisocial behaviour.

2.      Antisocial Personality Traits: He displayed traits consistent with antisocial personality disorder, including a lack of empathy, deceitfulness, disregard for the societal norms and rights of others.

3.      Fantasy and Escalation: His crimes escalated from voyeurism to assault and ultimately to murder. He often indulged in violent sexual fantasies that eventually became reality.

4.      Objectification of Women: Bundy's objectification of women and his view of them as disposable objects contributed to his brutal crimes. He saw his victims as commodities to be exploited for his gratification. This objectification paved the way for his brutal actions, allowing him to disconnect from the human suffering he inflicted.

5.      Charm and Manipulation: Bundy's charm and ability to manipulate both victims and authorities allowed him to evade capture for a significant period. Bundy was gifted with charisma and an affable demeanor. These traits were employed by him to deceive his victims. He used his charm to gain the trust of young women, often posing as an injured individual in need of assistance. By exploiting their goodwill, he disarmed his victims and seized the opportunity to overpower them.

6.      The Psychology of Control: Bundy's need for control was a dominant psychological aspect. His crimes were marked by meticulous planning, manipulation and the ability to dominate both his victims and the legal proceedings. Even during his trials, Bundy chose to represent himself, a strategy that allowed him to maintain a level of control over the courtroom.

7.      Escaping Capture: Bundy managed to evade capture for a significant period by continually altering his appearance, using aliases and moving between states. This cunning behavior exemplified his ability to adapt and manipulate, further highlighting the gap between his public image and his sinister reality.

The Ted Bundy case profoundly impacted forensic psychology, yielding insights into criminal profiling, the motivations of serial killers and the role of psychological assessment in legal proceedings. His complex blend of charm, narcissism and manipulation underscored the importance of delving beyond surface impressions to understand the inner workings of criminal minds.

It is hereby concluded that the case of Ted Bundy remains a remarkable study in the intricate interplay between personality traits, psychological motivations and criminal behavior. His ability to manipulate, his disconnect from empathy and his successful projection of normalcy make him a haunting figure in the annals of Forensic Psychology. The enduring fascination with his case underscores the importance of understanding the complex psychological dynamics that drive individuals to commit acts of violence, ultimately contributing to the ongoing pursuit of insights that can prevent and address such atrocities in the future.

 

Written by- 

Ms Shalini Sharma

Volunteer head-AFRS

Written By:

Introduction:

The field of forensic science covers a wide range of topics, including anthropology, migration studies, and criminology. In order to help a scientist find answers to the numerous issues in the field, several biological samples have been used. Saliva is a readily accessible source from the victim as well as the attacker, parent-child, and siblings. To assist in identifying the components of salivary samples, several assays have been developed. This article deals with the wide utility of saliva examination as a forensic tool.

A complex biological fluid called saliva is secreted by the acinar cells of the major and minor salivary glands. It serves as a marker for different components of plasma. Its use as a forensic and diagnostic tool has received more attention in recent years and is currently being studied more thoroughly. It is essential to the genomes, proteomics, metabolomics, and bioinformatics fields as well as preserving the homeostasis of oral structures including tooth integrity. It serves as a gauge of salivary gland health and as a tool for drug and toxicological testing in forensic biology, making it a crucial distinguishing factor.

Various tests for Saliva:

1. Starch-Iodide Test
It is a simple chemical test used to detect the presence of amylase in saliva. Amylase is an enzyme that breaks down starch into simpler sugars. Here are the steps for performing the Starch-Iodide Test for saliva:

Materials needed:
• Saliva sample
• Starch solution
• Iodine solution
• Test tubes
• Dropper or pipette
• Test tube rack

Procedure:

Prepare the solutions:

a. Starch solution: Dissolve a small amount of starch (e.g., cornstarch or potato starch) in water to create a starch solution. The concentration is not critical, but it should be visibly cloudy when mixed with water.
b. Iodine solution: Prepare a dilute iodine solution by adding a few drops of iodine to a larger volume of water. It should be yellow-brown in color.

Label the test tubes:

Take several test tubes and label them to indicate the different samples you will test. For example, label one as "Saliva," another as "Starch + Saliva," and a third as "Starch (control)."



Collect the saliva sample:

Ask the person being tested to provide a saliva sample. They can spit into a clean container or directly into the labelled test tube labelled as "Saliva."

Test tube setup:

a. In the "Starch + Saliva" test tube, add a small amount (around 1 mL) of the prepared starch solution.
b. In the "Saliva" test tube, add the saliva sample collected in step 3.
c. In the "Starch (control)" test tube, add an equal amount of water as used for the saliva sample. This will be the control tube to show the original color of the starch solution.

Mixing:

a. Mix the contents of the "Starch + Saliva" test tube thoroughly to ensure the saliva and starch solution are well combined.
b. Mix the saliva sample in the "Saliva" test tube gently, but ensure it is well-mixed.

Add iodine solution:

a. Add a few drops of the dilute iodine solution to each test tube.
b. Observe and compare the color of the mixtures.

Interpretation:

a. The "Starch (control)" tube should remain a yellow-brown color, indicating the presence of starch.
b. The "Starch + Saliva" tube should show a color change to a blue-black or purple-black color. This indicates the presence of amylase in saliva, which has broken down the starch into simpler sugars.
c. The "Saliva" tube may not show any significant color change since it only contains saliva without starch.

2. Phadebas Test

Phadebas Amylase Test Kit (includes reagents with dye-starch complex)
• Saliva sample
• Graduated pipettes or droppers
• Test tubes or cuvettes
• Spectrophotometer (to measure absorbance) with a wavelength of 620 nm

Procedure:

Prepare the test:

a. Follow the manufacturer's instructions to prepare the Phadebas Amylase Test Kit. This kit typically contains reagents specific to the test, including a dye-starch complex.

Sample collection:

a. Ask the person being tested to provide a saliva sample. They can spit into a clean container or directly into a test tube.

Dilution of saliva sample:

a. Take a graduated pipette or dropper and measure an appropriate volume of saliva (e.g., 100 μL). Transfer the saliva sample into a test tube.
b., If necessary, dilute the saliva with a suitable diluent provided in the Phadebas Test Kit. Follow the manufacturer's instructions for the correct dilution factor. Note: The dilution may not be required if the kit is designed for direct testing of saliva without dilution.

Mixing:

a. Mix the diluted saliva sample thoroughly to ensure homogeneity.

Phadebas reagent addition:

a. Add an appropriate volume of the Phadebas reagent (dye-starch complex) to the test tube containing the diluted saliva sample. Follow the instructions provided in the test kit for the correct volume of reagent to be added.

Mixing after Phadebas reagent addition:

a. Mix the contents of the test tube thoroughly to ensure proper contact between the Phadebas reagent and the amylase in the saliva.

Incubation:

a. Allow the mixture to stand for a specific duration, as mentioned in the test kit instructions. This incubation allows amylase to digest the starch in the dye-starch complex, releasing the dye and turning the solution blue.

Spectrophotometer reading:

a. After the specified incubation time, use a spectrophotometer to measure the absorbance of the blue solution at a wavelength of 620 nm. This absorbance is directly related to the amount of amylase activity in the saliva.

Calibration (for quantitative analysis):

a. Prepare a standard concentration curve using known concentrations of the coloured dye provided in the test kit. Measure the absorbance of each standard at 620 nm.
b. Create a graph with the known concentrations on the x-axis and their corresponding absorbance values on the y-axis.

Quantitative analysis:

a. Using the calibration curve, determine the concentration of the coloured dye corresponding to the absorbance of the tested saliva sample.
b. Convert the dye concentration to the amylase activity in the saliva sample, expressed in units of amylase activity per liter of saliva (U/L).



3. Immunochromatographic Test (RSID-saliva kit)
It is a rapid and simple method based on antigen-antibody interactions to detect the presence of saliva in a sample. Here are the steps for performing the test:
Materials needed:
• RSID-saliva kit (commercially available immunochromatographic kit)
• Saliva sample (as low as 1 μL)
• Timer or stopwatch

Procedure:

Prepare the RSID-saliva kit:

a. Follow the manufacturer's instructions to prepare the RSID-saliva kit. The kit should include all the necessary components, such as test strips, buffers, and reagents.

Sample collection:

a. Collect the saliva sample to be tested. As the RSID-saliva kit is sensitive, even a very small volume of saliva (1 μL) is sufficient for testing.

Test strip preparation:

a. Take out the test strip from the kit and place it on a clean and dry surface.
b. The test strip typically consists of a sample pad, a conjugate pad, a nitrocellulose membrane, and an absorbent pad.

Sample application:

a. Using a micropipette or a capillary tube, apply the saliva sample onto the sample pad of the test strip. Alternatively, some kits may come with a sample collection device that allows you to directly collect the saliva sample onto the test strip.

Incubation:

a. After applying the saliva sample, wait for the recommended incubation time, usually a few minutes (as per the manufacturer's instructions). This allows antigen-antibody interactions to occur on the test strip.

Interpretation of results:

a. Once the incubation time is complete, observe the test strip for the appearance of a pink line. A pink line will indicate the presence of saliva in the sample.
b. If the pink line is visible, it means that the antigen (present in saliva) has reacted with the specific antibodies on the test strip, leading to a positive result for saliva detection.
c. If no pink line appears, it indicates a negative result, and the sample does not contain saliva.

Timing:

a. Follow the manufacturer's instructions regarding the appropriate timing for result interpretation. Leaving the test strip for too long after the recommended time may lead to false results.

Proper disposal:

a. Dispose of the used test strip and other materials according to local biohazard waste regulations.

Introduction

It is the quick dehydration/desiccation of the dead corpse caused by water evaporation, with retention of the natural features and looks of the body. The entire body loses weight, becomes lean, stiff, brittle, and odourless. It is modification of putrefaction (dry decomposition). The natural decomposition of the dead body is stopped because the growth of the microorganisms is slowed.

Salient features of mummification

* The entire body, including the internal organs, is affected after starting in the exposed areas of the body, such as the face (lips, tip of nose), hands, and feet.

* Due to the liquid subcutaneous fat being absorbed, the skin may appear transparent. It typically has a shrivelled, contracted appearance that is brown in colour, dry, brittle, leathery, and rusty. Anatomical prominences including the cheekbones, chin, costal edges, and hips have skin that is tightly stretched over them, adheres to the bones, and is frequently covered in fungus growths.

* Internal organs may no longer be recognisable as they become shruken, hard, dark-brown or black, and combine into a single mass.

* The mummified material typically exhibits collagen, elastic tissues, cardiac and skeletal muscle, cartilage, and bone histologically.

* On rare occasions, a body may exhibit signs of adipocere alterations in some areas and mummification in others. As a result, the arms and legs may be mummified along with adipocere on the cheeks, abdomen, and buttocks.

Time required for mummification

Mummification takes anywhere from 3 to 12 months or longer to complete.

Favouring Factors of mummification

1. Environment that is hot: Such as a desert.

2. In a dry environment, mummification cannot take place.

3. Free air flow: This promotes the quick evaporation of bodily fluids.

4. Contact of the body with an absorbing medium: When a dead body is placed in a shallow grave with dry, sandy soil, the body fluids quickly seep into the soil, mummifying the body.

5. Poisoning: Prolonged antimony or arsenic poisoning is advantageous to mummification.

Medico- legal aspects

They have the same medical and legal significance as adipocere.

E-mail has supplanted other forms of communication in recent years, and most computer users have programmes to receive, send, and manage their e-mail. These programmes vary in how, where, and how they track and keep e-mail. Some require their own directories and data files on the local machine and are installed separately from the operating systems. Others use already installed software, including Web browsers, without installing any additional software on the client machine. Computer forensics investigators must be familiar with the processing of E-Mail in order to gather this crucial evidence because it has become a crucial component of many computing investigations. Additionally, investigators need to understand how to spot phishing or spoofing attempts, as well as the rise in email scams. E-mail-related crimes and policy breaches require the same kind of investigation as other computer crimes and computer misuse. To establish a case for prosecution or arbitration, the goal is to identify the person(s) responsible for the crime or policy violation, collect the necessary evidence, and submit the results. The location, state, and occasionally country where the email was sent determine what violations and crimes were committed by email. Crimes are increasingly being committed by email, and more investigators are discovering emails that connect suspects to a crime or policy violation. For example, some people use email to perform crimes like drug trafficking and extortion. Kid abductions, child pornography, fraud, stalking, sexual harassment of women, and so forth. Since email has emerged as a significant means of communication, it is possible for any crime or rule violation to involve email. The 419 scam, also known as the Nigerian Scam, which started as a chain letter in Nigeria, Africa, was one of the most notable e-mail scams. In order to solicit victims, fraudsters just need access to Internet e-mail, saving them money on foreign postage. Contrasting cutting-edge, more sophisticated phishing email scams. A distinctive writing style and other differentiating maneuvers are used in 419 communications.  Methods for Email Forensic Investigations Email forensics is the analysis of the origin and content of emails as proof to pinpoint the true sender and recipient of a communication, as well as other details like the date, time, and purpose of the sender. It entails looking through metadata, scanning ports, and keyword swatches. The following are some typical methods that can be utilized for an email forensic investigation:  • Header Analysis  • Server investigation  • Network Device Investigation  • Sender Mailer Fingerprints  • Software Embedded Identifiers  1. Email Header Analysis Important information is contained in email headers, such as the sender and recipient’s names, the servers and other devices the message has passed through, etc. Investigators and forensics specialists might benefit from the crucial information in email headers when conducting an email inquiry. For instance, the Delivered-To field provides the recipient’s email address, while the Received-By field contains the last-visited SMTP server’s IP address, SMTP ID, and the time and date the email was received. Similar information, including the sender’s IP address and host name, is provided in the Received: from field. The identification of the offender and the gathering of evidence can both benefit from such knowledge. 2. Server investigation The software that powers an email server employs email protocols to provide its services and keeps logs that can be analyzed and used in the inquiry. Every email server has the ability to keep track of emails that have been handled. Some email servers are configured to automatically log email transactions. Others need to be set up that way. To recover emails, the majority of email administrators record system activity and message flow. Make sure the firewall and email filters are functioning properly in case of a crisis, and put business policy into place. Even so, the email ends when it reaches a certain size or the allotted amount of time has passed. Circular logging reduces server space usage, but once it has been overwritten, it cannot be retrieved.   3. Network device investigation Sometimes, server logs are not accessible. Numerous factors, such as servers that are not set up to maintain logs or ISPs who won’t provide the log files, can cause this. In such a case, investigators can look for an email message’s origins in the logs kept by network devices like switches, firewalls, and routers. 4. Sender mailer fingerprints Email communications also include X-headers in addition to common headers like Subject and To. These can be used to identify the email client programmes, such as Outlook or Opera Mail, and are frequently added for spam filter information, authentication results, etc. To identify the original sender, or the IP address of the sender’s machine, use the X-originating-IP header. 5. Software embedded identifiers The email programmes that a sender uses occasionally enables the inclusion of extra details about the message and any associated files. It appears as a Transport Neutral Encapsulation Format (TNEF) or custom header in MIME content. These portions can be thoroughly analyzed to disclose important information about the sender, such as the sender’s MAC address, Windows logon username, PST file name, and more. CONCLUSION: The study of emails to obtain digital evidence for crimes and incidents may be the subject of email forensics, a subfield of digital forensic science. It includes a thorough and methodical review of emails, paying close attention to details like message transmission paths, attachments and documents attached, IP addresses of servers and machines, etc. Written By:  Sneha.A.K Volunteer  Applied Forensic Research Sciences